Production of 5-methyl-1-hydrocarbyl-2-pyrrolidone by reductive amination of levulinic acid

ABSTRACT

This invention relates to a process for producing 5-methyl-1-R-2-pyrrolidone or 5-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, wherein R is a hydrocarbyl or substituted hydrocarbyl, by reductive amination of levulinic acid utilizing a metal catalyst, which may be optionally supported.

FIELD OF INVENTION

[0001] This invention relates to a process for producing 5-methyl-1-hydrocarbyl-2-pyrrolidone or 5-methyl-2-pyrrolidone by reductive amination of levulinic acid utilizing a metal catalyst, which is optionally supported.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0002] Levulinic acid is a well-known product of hexose acid hydrolysis, and can be inexpensively obtained from cellulose feedstocks. Consequently, it is an attractive starting material in producing many useful 5-carbon compounds such as 5-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, which is used as solvent in industrial applications. U.S. Pat. No. 3,235,562 discloses a vapor phase process of making 5-methyl-2-pyrrolidone from levulinic acid, hydrogen and ammonia in the presence of a hydrogenation catalyst. Barium-promoted copper chromite catalyst can also be used to effect the vapor phase reductive amination of levulinic acid to 5-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, as disclosed by U.S. Pat. No. 3,235,562. U.S. Pat. No. 3,235,562 also discloses a vapor phase process for making 1,5-dimethyl-2-pyrrolidone from levulinic acid, hydrogen, and methyl amine in presence of nickel catalyst supported on kieselguhr. U.S. Pat. No. 3,337,585 discloses a process for making 5-methyl-2-pyrrolidone from levulinic acid and ammonia or ammonium hydroxide in an alkaline reaction medium under carbon monoxide pressure in the range of 1.0 atmospheres to 101 MPa and a temperature in the range of 50° C. to 350° C. British Patent GB 1,036,694 discloses the reductive amination of levulinic acid with ammonia and a subsequent hydrogenation with a Raney Ni catalyst at 150° C. to give 5-methyl-2-pyrrolidone.

[0003] 5-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone and its 1-linear hydrocarbyl or linear substituted hydrocarbyls have generally been produced by the reaction of alkyl amine with 5-methyl-gamma-butyrolactone. These compounds are used as industrial solvents, in inkjet applications and surfactant applications.

[0004] An efficient and low cost process for the production of alkyl and cycloalkyl pyrrolidones would be advantageous.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0005] The present invention is a novel, one-step process for converting levulinic acid and ammonia or primary amines to 5-methyl-2-pyrrolidone or its 1-hydrocarbyl or substituted hydrocarbyl derivative as set forth in greater detail below in the presence of catalysts. Specifically, the present invention relates to a process for preparing 5-methyl-1-R₁-2-pyrrolidone (III), which comprises the step of contacting the compound levulinic acid (I) with a primary amine (II), in the presence of a catalyst and hydrogen gas;

[0006] wherein R₁ is a hydrocarbyl or a substituted hydrocarbyl group having from 1 to 30 carbons, and wherein R₁ may be C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkenyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkynyl, C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl containing at least one heteroatom, and wherein 5-methyl-1-R₁-2-pyrrolidone (III) may comprise 100% by weight of the total product formed, or wherein additional products may be produced.

[0007] The catalyst useful in the process of the invention is selected from metals from the group consisting of palladium, ruthenium, rhenium, rhodium, iridium, platinum, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, osmium; compounds thereof; and combinations thereof.

[0008] The present invention also relates to a process for preparing 5-methyl-1-R₂-2-pyrrolidone (VI), which comprises the step of contacting the ammonium salt of levulinic acid (IV) with a primary amine (V), in the presence of a catalyst and hydrogen gas;

[0009] wherein R₂ is a hydrocarbyl or a substituted hydrocarbyl having from 1 to 30 carbons, and wherein R₂ may be C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkenyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkynyl, C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl containing at least one heteroatom, and wherein 5-methyl-1-R₂-2-pyrrolidone (VI) may comprise 100% by weight of the total product formed, or wherein additional products may be produced.

[0010] The catalyst useful in this process of the invention is selected from metals from the group consisting of palladium, ruthenium, rhenium, rhodium, iridium, platinum, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, osmium; compounds thereof; and combinations thereof.

[0011] The present invention also relates to a process for preparing 5-methyl-1-R₃-2-pyrrolidone (IX), which comprises the step of contacting the R₃-ammonium salt of levulinic acid (VII) with ammonia or ammonium hydroxide (VIII), in the presence of a catalyst and hydrogen gas;

[0012] wherein R₃ is a hydrocarbyl or a substituted hydrocarbyl group having from 1 to 30 carbons, and wherein R₃ may be C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkenyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkynyl, C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl containing at least one heteroatom, and wherein A is hydrogen or hydronium ion (H₃O⁺), and wherein 5-methyl-1-R₃-2-pyrrolidone (IX) may comprise 100% by weight of the total product formed, or wherein additional products may be produced.

[0013] The catalyst useful in this process of the invention is selected from metals from the group consisting of palladium, ruthenium, rhenium, rhodium, iridium, platinum, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, osmium; compounds thereof; and combinations thereof.

[0014] The present invention also relates to a process for preparing 5-methyl-1-R₆-2-pyrrolidone (XII), which comprises the step of contacting the R₄-ammonium salt of levulinic acid (X) with a primary amine (XI), in the presence of a catalyst and hydrogen gas;

[0015] wherein R₄, R₅, and R₆ are hydrocarbyl or substituted hydrocarbyl groups having from 1 to 30 carbons, and wherein R₄, R₅, and R₆ may be C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkenyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkynyl, C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl containing at least one heteroatom, and wherein 5-methyl-1-R₆-2-pyrrolidone (XII) may comprise 100% by weight of the total product formed, or wherein additional products may be produced.

[0016] The catalyst useful in this process of the invention is selected from metals from the group consisting of palladium, ruthenium, rhenium, rhodium, iridium, platinum, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, osmium; compounds thereof; and combinations thereof.

[0017] The present invention also relates to a process for preparing 5-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (XV), which comprises the step of contacting the compound levulinic acid or the ammonium salt of levulinic acid (XIII) with ammonia or ammonium hydroxide (XIV), in the presence of a catalyst, and hydrogen gas;

[0018] wherein A is either hydrogen or ammonium ion (NH₄ ⁺), and B is either hydrogen or hydronium ion (H₃O⁺), and wherein 5-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (XV) may comprise 100% by weight of the total product formed, or wherein additional products may be produced.

[0019] The catalyst useful in this process of the invention is selected from metals from the group consisting of palladium, ruthenium, rhenium, rhodium, iridium, platinum, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, osmium; compounds thereof; and combinations thereof.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0020] By “levulinic acid” is meant the compound having the following formula:

[0021] It is used herein as an ammonium salt of levulinic acid [Formula (IV)], or the R₃- or R₄-salt of levulinic acid [Formulas (VII) and (X), respectively] in aqueous solution as shown below:

[0022] By “5-methyl-1-R-2-pyrrolidone” is meant the compounds having the general formula below, wherein R is a hydrocarbyl or a substituted hydrocarbyl group having from 1 to 30 carbon atoms, and wherein R may be C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkenyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkynyl, C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl containing at least one heteroatom:

[0023] By “5-methyl-2-pyrrolidone” is meant the compound having the following formula:

[0024] By “catalyst” is meant a substance that affects the rate of the reaction but not the reaction equilibrium, and emerges from the process chemically unchanged.

[0025] By “metal catalyst” is meant a catalyst that is comprised of at least one metal, at least one Raney metal, compounds thereof or combinations thereof.

[0026] By “promoter” is meant an element of the Periodic Table that is added to enhance the physical or chemical function of the catalyst. The promoter can also be added to retard undesirable side reactions and/or affect the rate of the reaction.

[0027] By “metal promoter” is meant a metallic compound that is added to enhance the physical or chemical function of a catalyst. The metal promoter can also be added to retard undesirable side reactions and/or affect the rate of the reaction.

[0028] By “fully or partially reduced derivative” of an aryl compound is meant a compound that can be derived from the parent compound by saturating or reducing one or more of the unsaturated bonds in the aromatic ring. Unsaturated compounds are compounds that contain one or more carbon to carbon double or triple bonds. For example, a fully reduced derivative of a phenyl group is a cyclohexyl group.

[0029] This invention relates to the synthesis of 5-methyl-1-R-2-pyrrolidone from a reaction between levulinic acid, its ammonium salt, or its R₃- or R₄-ammonium salt, and a primary amine, ammonia, or ammonium hydroxide, in the presence of hydrogen gas and a catalyst. This invention also relates to synthesis of 5-methyl-2-pyrrolidone from a reaction between levulinic acid or its ammonium salt and ammonia or ammonium hydroxide in the presence of hydrogen gas and a catalyst.

[0030] More specifically, this invention relates to the synthesis of 5-methyl-1-R-2-pyrrolidone from a reaction between levulinic acid and a primary amine, or the synthesis of 5-methyl-2-pyrrolidone from a reaction between levulinic acid and ammonia in the presence of hydrogen gas at elevated pressures and temperatures. 5-Methyl-1-R-2-pyrrolidone or 5-methyl-2-pyrrolidone may comprise 100% by weight of the total product formed, or additional products may be produced. A catalyst, with or without a support, may be present in the processes of the invention to effect the amination reactions. A promoter may optionally be used to aid the reactions. The promoter can be a metal.

[0031] The processes of the present invention may be carried out in batch, sequential batch (i.e., a series of batch reactors) or in continuous mode in any of the equipment customarily employed for continuous process (see for example, H. S. Fogler, Elementary Chemical Reaction Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc., N.J., USA). The condensate water formed as the product of the reaction is removed by separation methods customarily employed for such separations, such as distillation.

[0032] The hydrocarbyl or the substituted hydrocarbyl group represented by R₁, R₂, R₃, R₄, R₅ or R₆ is preferably an alkyl or substituted alkyl group having from 1 to 30 carbons. More preferably, the alkyl or substituted alkyl group has from 1 to 12 carbons.

[0033] In the processes of the invention, a molar ratio of amine, ammonia, or ammonium hydroxide to the levulinic acid or its salt of from about 0.01/1 to about 100/1 is preferred at the start of the reaction. A molar ratio of from about 0.1/1 to about 5/1 is further preferred at the start of the reaction.

[0034] A temperature range of from about 50° C. to about 300° C. is preferred for the processes of the invention. A temperature range of from about 75° C. to about 250° C. is further preferred.

[0035] A pressure range of from about 0.3 MPa to about 20 MPa is employed for the processes of the invention. A pressure range of from about 1.3 MPa to about 8 MPa is preferred.

[0036] The reactions of the present invention can be performed in non-reacting solvent media such as water, alcohols, ethers, and pyrrolidones. Alternatively, the excess of amine can also act as the solvent medium.

[0037] The catalyst useful in the invention is a substance that affects the rate of the reaction but not the reaction equilibrium, and emerges from the process chemically unchanged. A chemical promoter generally augments the activity of a catalyst. The promoter herein may be incorporated into the catalyst during any step in the chemical processing of the catalyst constituent. The chemical promoter generally enhances the physical or chemical function of the catalyst agent, but can also be added to retard undesirable side reactions.

[0038] The processes of the invention involve reductive amination of levulinic acid, which is effected in presence of a catalytic metal. The principal component of the catalyst useful herein is selected from metals from the group consisting of palladium, ruthenium, rhenium, rhodium, iridium, platinum, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, osmium; compounds thereof; and combinations thereof.

[0039] A promoter may be used optionally in the reactions of the present invention. The promoter herein may be incorporated into the catalyst during any step in the chemical processing of the catalyst constituent. Suitable promoters for the processes of the invention include metals selected from tin, zinc, copper, gold, silver, and combinations thereof. The preferred metal promoter is tin. Other promoters that can be used are elements selected from Group 1 and Group 2 of the Periodic Table.

[0040] The catalyst used in the process may be supported or unsupported. A supported catalyst is one in which the active catalyst agent is deposited on a support material by a number of methods, such as spraying, soaking or physical mixing, followed by drying, calcination, and if necessary, activation through methods such as reduction or oxidation. Materials frequently used as a support are porous solids with high total surface areas (external and internal) which can provide high concentrations of active sites per unit weight of catalyst. The catalyst support may enhance the function of the catalyst agent. A supported metal catalyst is a supported catalyst in which the catalyst agent is a metal.

[0041] A catalyst that is not supported on a catalyst support material is an unsupported catalyst. An unsupported catalyst may be platinum black or a Raney catalyst. The term “Raney catalyst” as used herein refers to catalysts that have a high surface area due to selectively leaching an alloy containing the active metal(s) and a leachable metal (usually aluminum). The term Raney catalyst is not meant to denote any particular source of the material. Raney catalysts have high activity due to the higher specific area and allow the use of lower temperatures in hydrogenation reactions. The active metals of Raney catalysts include nickel, copper, cobalt, iron, rhodium, ruthenium, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, palladium; compounds thereof; and combinations thereof.

[0042] Promoter metals may also be added to the base Raney metals to affect selectivity and/or activity of the Raney catalyst. Promoter metals for Raney catalysts may be selected from transition metals from Groups IIIA through VIIIA, IB and IIB of the Periodic Table of the Elements. Examples of promoter metals include chromium, molybdenum, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, osmium, and palladium, typically at about 2% by weight of the total metal.

[0043] The catalyst support useful herein can be any solid, inert substance including, but not limited to, oxides such as silica, alumina and titania, and carbons. The catalyst support can be in the form of powder, granules, pellets, or the like.

[0044] A preferred support material of the invention is selected from the group consisting of carbon, alumina, silica, silica-alumina, silica-titania, titania, titania-alumina, strontium carbonate, compounds thereof and combinations thereof. Supported metal catalysts can also have supporting materials made from one or more compounds. A more preferred support is carbon, alumina or titania. Further preferred supports are carbons with a surface area greater than 100 m²/g. A further preferred support is carbons with a surface area greater than 200 m²/g. Preferably, the carbon has an ash content that is less than 5% by weight of the catalyst support; the ash content is the inorganic residue (expressed as a percentage of the original weight of the carbon) which remains after incineration of the carbon.

[0045] Commercially available carbons which may be used in this invention include those sold under the following trademarks: Bameby & Sutcliffe™, Darco™, Nuchar™, Columbia JXN™, Columbia LCK™, Calgon PCB™, Calgon BPL™, Westvaco™, Norit™ and Barnaby Cheny NB™. The carbon can also be commercially available carbon such as Calsicat C, Sibunit C, or Calgon C (commercially available under the registered trademark Centaur(R)).

[0046] In the processes of the invention, the preferred content of the metal catalyst in the supported catalyst is from about 0.1% to about 20% of the supported catalyst based on metal catalyst weight plus the support weight. A more preferred metal catalyst content range is from about 1% to about 10% of the supported catalyst. A further preferred metal catalyst content range is from about 3% to about 7% of the supported catalyst.

[0047] Combinations of catalyst and support may include any one of the metals referred to herein with any of the supports referred to herein. Preferred combinations of catalyst and support include palladium on carbon, palladium on calcium carbonate, palladium on barium sulfate, palladium on alumina, palladium on silica, palladium on titania, platinum on carbon, platinum on alumina, platinum on silica, iridium on silica, iridium on carbon, iridium on alumina, rhodium on carbon, rhodium on silica, rhodium on alumina, nickel on carbon, nickel on alumina, nickel on silica, rhenium on carbon, rhenium on silica, rhenium on alumina, ruthenium on carbon, ruthenium on alumina, ruthenium on silica and combinations thereof.

[0048] Preferred combinations of catalyst and support include palladium on carbon, palladium on calcium carbonate, palladium on barium sulfate, palladium on alumina, palladium on titania, platinum on carbon, platinum on alumina, platinum on silica, iridium on silica, iridium on carbon, iridium on alumina, rhodium on silica, rhodium on alumina, nickel on carbon, nickel on alumina, rhenium on carbon, rhenium on silica, rhenium on alumina, ruthenium on carbon, ruthenium on alumina, and ruthenium on silica.

[0049] The levulinic acid useful in the processes of the invention may be obtained using traditional chemical routes or obtained from biobased, renewable cellulosic feedstocks. Utilization of bio-derived levulinic acid is likely to reduce the cost of manufacture of the compounds herein relative to conventional methods.

[0050] The compounds produced by the processes of the invention display properties that are useful in diverse applications. N-alkyl pyrrolidones with alkyl chains up to about 8 carbons function as aprotic chemical solvents with a lower toxicity profile than other solvents. The carbon chains of N-lower pyrrolidones are not long enough to allow micelle formation in water; thus these compounds do not exhibit significant surfactant properties. N-alkyl pyrrolidones with alkyl groups of about C₈ to C₁₄ exhibit surfactant properties, and pyrrolidones with longer N-alkyl chains act as complexing agents. The surface active properties of alkyl pyrrolidones, such as solubility, wetting, viscosity building, emulsifying and complexing are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,294,644. N-alkyl pyrrolidones can also be used for concentrating colloidal particles. Due to their solvent, surfactant and complexing properties, pyrrolidones are very useful in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and industrial, agricultural and household chemicals and products.

[0051] The pyrrolidones produced by the processes of the invention are useful in preparing pharmaceutical products for use on humans, animals, reptiles, and fish. The pyrrolidones disclosed herein are particularly useful in topical formulations, such as ointments, creams, lotions, pastes, gels, sprays, aerosols, lotions, shampoos, foams, creams, gels, ointments, salves, milks, sticks, sprays, balms, emulsions, powders, solid or liquid soaps, or oils. Pyrrolidones, such as 5-methyl-2-pyrrolidones, can be used to enhance the transdermal penetration of active components into human or animal tissues and systems. Pyrrolidones can also act as solubilizers to enhance the solubility of a therapeutic agent in the carrier system.

[0052] The pyrrolidones produced by the processes of the invention may also be incorporated into matrix systems, such as patches, for the transdermal administration of, for example, an antimicrobial, a hormone, or an anti-inflammatory. The methods of preparation of pharmaceutical compositions as are commonly practiced in the pharmaceutical industry are useful with the processes of the invention. For discussion of such methods, see, for example, Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences (AR Gennaro, ed., 20^(th) Edition, 2000, Williams & Wilkins, PA) incorporated herein by reference.

[0053] The pyrrolidones made by the processes of the invention may be used as solvents or surfactants in liquid, gel or aerosol cleaning compositions for cleaning a wide range of surfaces, including textiles, such as clothing, fabrics and carpets, and hard surfaces, such as glass, metal, ceramics, porcelain, synthetic plastics and vitreous enamel. The pyrrolidones may also be used in formulations for disinfecting hard surfaces, such as in the household, or in institutional or hospital environments, or the surface of skin, or fabric surfaces, or in the food preparation, restaurant or hotel industries. In addition, cleaning compositions are useful for the removal of industrial soils, such as dirt, grease, oil, ink and the like. The pyrrolidones may also be used as solvents in compositions for cleaning, solvating, and/or removing plastic resins or polymers from manufactured articles or manufacturing equipment.

[0054] In addition to pyrrolidones, other components may be included in cleaning compositions. These additional components include nonionic surfactants, anionic surfactants, cationic surfactants, amphoteric surfactants and solvents. Illustrative nonionic surfactants are alkyl polyglycosides, such as Glucopon (Henkel Corporation), ethylene oxide and mixed ethylene oxide/propylene oxide adducts of alkylphenols, the ethylene oxide and mixed ethylene oxide/propylene oxide adducts of long chain alcohols or of fatty acids, mixed ethylene oxide/propylene oxide block copolymers, esters of fatty acids and hydrophilic alcohols, such as sorbitan monooleate, alkanolamides, and the like.

[0055] Illustrative anionic surfactants are the soaps, higher alkylbenzene sulfonates containing from 9 to 16 carbons in the higher alkyl group in a straight or branched chain, C₈-C₁₅ alkyl toluene sulfonates, C₈-C₁₅ alkyl phenol sulfonates, olefin sulfonates, paraffin sulfonates, alcohol and alcoholether sulfates, phosphate esters, and the like.

[0056] Illustrative cationic surfactants include amines, amine oxides, alkylamine ethoxylates, ethylenediamine alkoxylates such as the Tetronic® series from BASF Corporation, quaternary ammonium salts, and the like.

[0057] Illustrative amphoteric surfactants are those which have both acidic and basic groups in their structure, such as amino and carboxyl radicals or amino and sulfonic radicals, or amine oxides and the like. Suitable amphoteric surfactants include betaines, sulfobetaines, imidazolines, and the like.

[0058] Illustrative solvents include glycols, glycol ethers, aliphatic alcohols, alkanolamines, pyrrolidones and water.

[0059] Such surfactants and solvents are described, for example, in McCutcheon's (2002), Volume 1 (Emulsifiers and Detergents) and Volume 2 (Functional Materials), The Manufacturing Confectioner Publishing Co., Glen Rock, N.J.

[0060] Cleaning compositions may also include additional components, such as chelating agents, corrosion inhibitors, antimicrobial compounds, buffering and pH adjusting agents, fragrances or perfumes, dyes, enzymes and bleaching agents.

[0061] N-alkyl-2-pyrrolidones are useful in cleaning and stripping formulations which are used to remove (or strip) a photoresist film (or other similar organic polymeric material film) or layer from a substrate, or to remove or clean various types of plasma-etch residues from a substrate. N-alkyl-2-pyrrolidones are also useful as surfactants in cleaning formulations for removing solder pastes from printing applicators and circuit assemblies.

[0062] N-alkyl-2-pyrrolidones, such as 5-methyl-N-octyl-2-pyrrolidone and 5-methyl-N-dodecyl-2-pyrrolidone, may be included as components in ink jet inks in order to improve resistance to highlighter smear when printed into an image, lead to an even print (minimize the degree of banding) and impart an improved waterfast resistance and/or a better dry or wet rub property. 2-Pyrrolidones, such as 5-methyl-N-cyclohexyl-2-pyrrolidone or 5-methyl-N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, may also be used as a solvent in the preparation of hot melt or phase change inks for color printing.

[0063] The pyrrolidones made by the processes of the invention can also be utilized in the manufacture of agrochemicals, including but not limited to herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, bactericides, nematicides, algicides, mulluscicides, virucides, compounds inducing resistance to plants, repellants of birds, animals and insects, and plant growth regulators, or mixtures thereof. The method of manufacture comprises contacting an agrochemically effective agent as known to persons skilled in the art with at least one of the pyrrolidones produced by any of the methods of the invention. The agrochemical composition can optionally comprise additional auxilary components as are commonly used in the agrochemical industry.

[0064] Pyrrolidones, such as 5-methyl-N-methyl pyrrolidone and 5-methyl-N-cyclohexyl pyrrolidone, can be used as water insoluble polar co-solvents to solubilize water insoluble pesticides and other agrochemicals and increase the effective amount of active ingredient. N-alkyl pyrrolidones, preferably N-C₃₋₁₅ alkyl pyrrolidones, in particular 5-methyl-N-octyl pyrrolidone and 5-methyl-N-dodecylpyrrolidone, can be used as nonionic surfactants that aid as emulsifiers. Plant growth regulators are used to improve the economic yield of agricultural plants. 5-Methyl-N-octyl pyrrolidone and 5-methyl-N-dodecyl pyrrolidone can be utilized as solvents in emulsions containing plant growth regulators.

[0065] In addition, pyrrolidones can be utilized in liquid or aerosol formulations for dermal application of insect repellants by humans; examples include mosquito and tick repellants. Manufacture of such insect repellants comprises contacting an effective amount of at least one insect repelling agent with at least one product produced using at least one process of the invention.

[0066] Pyrrolidones, such as 5-methyl-N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, can also be used in antimicrobial formulations for the preservation of animal silage.

[0067] 5-Methyl-N-alkyl-2-pyrrolidones can also be used as part of a more environmentally-conscious method for dry-cleaning clothing that includes a surfactant and densified carbon dioxide in place of traditional solvents.

[0068] In addition, 5-methyl-2-pyrrolidones can be used as components in a protective composition for use on painted surfaces, such as cars. The pyrrolidones function to wet the surface and promote spreadibility of the protectant.

[0069] Different plastic materials are often not miscible, resulting in products that exhibit insufficient mechanical properties. Monomeric and polymeric 5-methyl-pyrrolidone-containing compounds can be used as compatibilizers for plastic compositions; the compatibilizers attach themselves to the interface between the polymers involved, or penetrate into the polymers, thereby improving the adhesion between the polymers and enhancing mechanical properties.

[0070] 5-Methyl-N-pyrrolidones can also be used as compatibilizers in the refrigeration and air conditioning industries. Transitioning from chlorofluorocarbon to hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants has necessitated the use of a new class of lubricants due to immiscibility with conventional lubricants such as mineral oil, poly α-olefin and alkylbenzene. However the new class of lubricants is expensive and also very hygroscopic. Absorption of water leads to acid formation and corrosion of the refrigeration system, as well as the formation of sludges. The lack of solubility of the hydrofluorocarbons in the conventional lubricants results in a highly viscous lubricant in the non-compressor zones, and results in insufficient lubricant return to the compressor. This can eventually result in a number of problems, including the compressor overheating and seizing and insufficient heat transfer in the refrigeration system. Compatibilizers solubilize the polar halogenated hydrocarbon refrigerant and the conventional non-polar lubricant in the non-compressor zones, which results in efficient return of lubricant to the compressor zone. Compatibilizers may include the 5-methyl-N-alkyl- and 5-methyl-N-cycloalkyl-2-pyrrolidones.

[0071] Pyrrolidones can also be used as fuel and lubricant additives. For example, N-alkyl-2-pyrrolidones can be used as detergents and dispersants in fuel additive compositions to keep valves, carburetors and injection systems clean, thereby improving the combustion characteristics and reducing deposits, thus reducing air polluting emissions. In addition, 5-methyl-N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone can be used to remove unsaturated hydrocarbons from raw lube distillates or deasphalted residual lube stocks to produce solvent-refined base oils as lubricants.

[0072] Methods for the preparation of cleaning, stripping, agrochemical and plastic formulations are well known to persons skilled in the art. Similarly, methods for the preparation of insect repellants, ink jet inks, protective formulations for paint, fuel additives and lubricants, refrigeration and air conditioning lubricants, and for dry cleaning are well known in the art. Pyrrolidones can act as solvents, surfactants, dispersants, detergents, emulsifiers, viscosity builders and complexing agents in these formulations. Appropriate pyrrolidones are selected based on standard screening procedures for product performance. Additional components, such as pharmaceutical or agrochemical active agents or colorants, may be added to specific formulations as the main functional component; the nature of the functional component or components would be determined by the specific use. Auxiliary components, which enhance or are critical to the efficacy of the formulation, may also be added. Auxiliary components may include solvents or cosolvents, thickeners, antioxidants, spreading agents, preservatives, adhesives, emulsifiers, defoamers, humectants, dispersants, surfactants, suitable carriers, matrix systems, delivery vehicles, fragrances, salts, esters, amides, alcohols, ethers, ketones, acids, bases, alkanes, silicone, evaporation modifiers, paraffins, aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbons, chelating agents, gases for aerosols, propellants or for dry cleaning, oils and water. Appropriate auxiliary components for the uses described herein are known to persons skilled in the art.

[0073] The following examples are illustrative of the invention. Examples 1 to 146 are actual examples; Examples 147 to 152 are prophetic.

EXAMPLES

[0074] The following abbreviations are used:

[0075] ESCAT-XXX: Series of catalysts provided by Engelhard Corp. (Iselin, N.J.)

[0076] ENG-XXX: Series of catalysts provided by Engelhard Corp. (Iselin, N.J.)

[0077] Calsicat Carbon: Catalyst support from Engelhard Corp. (lot S-96-140)

[0078] Sibunit Carbon: Catalyst support from Inst. of Technical Carbon, Omsk, Russia

[0079] Calgon Carbon: Catalyst support from Calgon Carbon Corp. under the brand name of Centaur(R) (Pittsburgh, Pa.)

[0080] JM-XXXX: Series of catalysts from Johnson Matthey, Inc. (W. Deptford, N.J.)

[0081] ST-XXXX-SA: Series of catalysts from Strem Chemicals (Newburyport, Mass.)

[0082] SCCM: Standard cubic centimeters per minute

[0083] GC: Gas chromatography

[0084] GC-MS: Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

[0085] For catalyst preparation a commercially available support such as carbon, alumina, silica, silica-alumina or titania was impregnated by incipient wetness with a metal salt. The catalyst precursors used were NiCl₂.6H₂O (Alfa Chemical Co., Ward Hill, Mass.), Re₂O₇ (Alfa Chemical Co.), PdCl₂ (Alfa Chemical Co.), IrCl₃.3H₂O (Alfa Chemical Co.), RuCl₃.xH₂O (Aldrich Chemical Co., Milwaukee, Wis.), H₂PtCl₆ (Johnson Matthey, Inc.), RhCl₃.xH₂O (Alfa Chemical Co.) and IrCl₃.3H₂O (Alfa Chemical Co.). The samples were dried and reduced at 300-450° C. under H₂ for 2 hours.

[0086] The carbon used was commercially available as Calsicat Carbon, Sibunit Carbon, or Calgon Carbon (commercially available under the registered trademark Centaur(R)). Calsicat Carbon is lot S-96-140 from Engelhard Corp., Beachwood, Ohio. Sibunit Carbon is Sibunit-2 from Institute of Technical Carbon, 5th Kordnaya, Omsk 64418, Russia. Calgon Carbon is PCB Carbon from Calgon Corp. (commercially available under the registered trademark of Centaur(R)). Levulinic acid, ammonium hydroxide, methylamine, hexylamine, heptylamine, octylamine, nonylamine, decylamine, undecylamine, ethanolamine, and cyclohexylamine are available from Fisher Scientific (Acros; Chicago, Ill.). Raney catalysts are available from W.R. Grace & Co. (Columbia, Md.).

[0087] Catalyst Preparation: 5% Pt on Acid Washed Calsicat Carbon

[0088] In a 150 ml beaker, a solution was made up of 4.5 ml 0.3 M H₂PtCl₆ with 4.0 ml deionized H₂O. To the beaker were added 4.75 g Calsicat Acid Washed Carbon (12×20 mesh, dried at 120° C. overnight). The slurry was allowed to stand at room temperature for 1 hr with occasional stirring, followed by drying at 120° C. overnight with frequent stirring (until free flowing).

[0089] In an alumina boat, in a quartz lined tube furnace, the catalyst was purged with 500 SCCM N₂ at room temperature for 15 min and then with 100 SCCM He at room temperature for 15 min. The catalyst was heated to 150° C. and held at 150° C. under He for 1 hr. At this point, 100 SCCM H₂ were added and the sample was held at 150° C. under He and H₂ for 1 hr. The temperature was increased to 300° C. and the catalyst was reduced at 300° C. under He—H₂ for 8 hrs. The H₂ was stopped, the sample was held at 300° C. under He for 30 min and then cooled to room temperature in flowing He. The catalyst was finally passivated in 1.5% O₂ in N₂ at 500 SCCM for 1 hr at room temperature and weighed 4.93 g when unloaded.

[0090] Additional catalysts used in the present invention were prepared following a similar procedure.

[0091] Continuous Reduction of Levulinic Acid-NH₄ Salt to 1,5-Dimethyl-2-Pyrrolidone

[0092] A stainless steel fixed-bed reactor (0.50″ ID×36″) was charged with 80 ml (64 g) of 0.7% Pd on 2.5 mm carbon granules (Engelhard 859A-1-563-1). Separate feeds of monomethylamine and a 68% aqueous solution of levulinic acid (as the ammonium salt) were fed to the top of the reactor at a rate of 8.3 g/hr and 17.3 g/hr, respectively, together with 76 SCCM hydrogen gas to continuously carry out the amination and cyclization. The reduction was performed continuously at 150° C. and 3.45 MPa for a total of 367 hr with a productivity of 91 g levulinic acid/g catalyst/hr. Samples were taken every 24 hr and analyzed by gas chromatography employing an HP 6890 (Agilent; Palo Alto, Calif.) equipped with a DB1701 megabore column (5% crosslinked phenyl-methyl-silicone; 30 m long, 0.33 m ID, and 0.25 μm film thickness; J & W Scientific, Folsom, Calif.) and a flame ionization detector. The GC temperature program was initially held at 60° C. for 2 min, and then heated at 8° C./min to 230° C. for 15 min. The column flow rate was 1.5 cc/min He. The injector and detector temperatures were 250° C. and 265° C., respectively. Product identification was made by GC/MS on a Finnigan MAT 4510B GC/MS having direct probe capability and employing a mass range of 1000 au (atomic units). GC analysis of a product sample showed a 99% conversion of levulinic acid and 94% yield of 1,5-dimethyl-2-pyrrolidone and 3.9% yield of 5-methyl-2-pyrrolidone.

[0093] Batch Reduction of Levulinic Acid-NH₄ salt to 1,5-Dimethyl-2-Pyrrolidone

[0094] A 300 ml stainless steel Autoclave Engineers magnedrive packless autoclave equipped with thermocouple, cooling coils, sample dip tube containing a stainless steel 5 μm Mott filter and Dispersimix turbine type draft tube agitator containing a rotating impeller was employed for the batch hydrogenation of levulinic acid to 1,5-dimethyl-2-pyrrolidone. The autoclave was charged with 50 g (0.42 mole) levulinic acid (98%), 25 g (0.42 mole) of 29% aqueous ammonia and 37 g (0.48 mole) monomethylamine. Three grams of a 5% Pd/C (Engelhard ESCAT 112) slurry catalyst was then added to the vessel. The vessel was closed and purged twice with nitrogen followed by three purges with hydrogen. The reactor was set to 0.34 MPa with hydrogen with slow stirring and heated to 150° C. At temperature, the pressure was raised to 4.14 MPa and maximum stirring commenced. After 4 hr, the reactor was stopped and cooled, followed by filtration of the catalyst from the reaction product.

[0095] Analysis of the product mixture was performed by gas chromatography (HP 6890; Agilent, Palo Alto, Calif.) employing a DB1701 megabore column (5% crosslinked phenyl-methyl-silicone; 30 m long, 0.33 m, ID, and 0.25 μm film thickness; J & W Scientific, Folsom, Calif.) and a flame ionization detector. The temperature was initially held at 60° C. for 2 min. and then heated at 8° C./min to 230° C. for 15 min. The column flow rate was 1.5 cc/min He. The injector and detector temperatures were 250° C. and 265° C., respectively. GC analysis showed complete conversion of levulinic acid and selectivities of 91% and 4.6%, respectively of 1,5-dimethyl-2-pyrrolidone and 5-methyl-2-pyrrolidone. Two high boiler amides amounting to 4.4% selectivity were also produced.

Examples 1-12 Preparation of 5-Methyl-2-Pyrrolidone (MP)

[0096] The feedstock used herein was 72% aqueous solution (by weight) of the ammonium salt of levulinic acid (LA/aq. NH₄OH(28%)). The temperature and pressure of the reactions were maintained at 150° C. and 6.9 MPa. Water was used as the solvent medium for the reaction. The results are set forth in the following table. Feed- MP Ex. Catalyst Time stock Yield No. Catalyst/Support^(a) (mg) (hrs) (mg) (%) 1 5% Pd/C (JM-A11108-5) 49.2 4 985.4 0.80 2 5% Pd/C (JM-A11208-5) 50.0 4 1013.7 0.10 3 5% Pd/Al₂O₃ (JM-A22117-5) 49.3 4 1022.8 0.16 4 5% Pd/Al₂O₃ (JM-A302099-5) 51.2 4 972.8 0.15 5 5% Pd/BaSO₄ (JM-A22222-5) 52.6 4 1009.3 0.51 6 5% Pd/CaCO₃ (JM-A21139-5) 52.3 4 1000.3 0.40 7 5% Pd/C (JM-A11108-5) 50.3 17 980.6 1.87 8 5% Pd/C (JM-A11208-5) 49.4 17 1000.2 0.59 9 5% Pd/Al₂O₃ (JM-A22117-5) 50.9 17 986.4 2.06 10 5% Pd/Al₂O₃ (JM-A302099-5) 50.4 17 981.3 1.78 11 5% Pd/BaSO₄ (JM-A22222-5) 48.0 17 993.0 0.43 12 5% Pd/CaCO₃ (JM-A21139-5) 49.2 17 976.4 1.31

Examples 13-30 Preparation of 1,5-Dimethyl-2-Pyrrolidone (DMP)

[0097] The feedstock used in examples 13 through 30, except for example 15, was 30% of the ammonium salt of levulinic acid, 28% methyl amine, and 42% water, by weight. For the reaction in example 15, the weight ratio of the feedstock was 60% of the ammonium salt of levulinic acid, 16% methylamine, and 24% water. The hydrogen pressure was 6.9 MPa. Water was used as the solvent medium for the reaction. The results are set forth in the following table. DMP Catalyst Time Temp Feedstock Yield Ex. No. Catalyst/Support^(a) (mg) (hrs) (C.) (mg) (%) 13 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-142) 3030.0 20 125 30030.0 80.74 14 5% Pd/C (JM-A503023) 3040.0 24 125 29980.0 70.11 15 5% Pd/C (JM-A503023) 3000.0 20 125 30000.0 67.48 16 5% Pd/C (JM-A503023) 3000.0 20 150 29970.0 63.31 17 5% Pd/C (JM-A503023) 1560.0 21 150 30020.0 53.81 18 5% Pd/C (JM-A503023) 3010.0 20 175 30010.0 48.15 19 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-142) 2990.0 20 175 29970.0 45.65 20 5% Pd/C (JM-A11208-5) 50.8 16 150 991.0 30.38 21 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-142) 49.2 16 200 1006.4 29.73 22 5% Pd/CaCO₃ (JM-A21139-5) 48.0 16 150 982.8 26.54 23 5% Pd/BaSO₄ (JM-A22222-5) 52.8 16 150 990.9 26.49 24 5% Pd/Al₂O₃ (JM-A22117-5) 48.9 16 150 991.6 25.45 25 5% Pd/C (JM-A11108-5) 48.4 16 150 983.3 23.12 26 5% Pd/Al₂O₃ (JM-A302099-5) 51.8 16 150 989.8 15.26 27 5% Pd/CaCO₃ (JM-A21139-5) 51.6 4 150 986.3 2.57 28 5% Pd/BaSO₄ (JM-A22222-5) 48.5 4 150 975.3 2.57 29 5% Pd/Al₂O₃ (JM-A302099-5) 49.2 4 150 977.4 0.27 30 5% Pd/Al₂O₃ (JM-A22117-5) 48.7 4 150 980.6 0.18

Examples 31-38 Preparation of 5-Methyl-1-Hexyl-2-Pyrrolidone (HxP)

[0098] The feedstock used in examples 31 through 38 was 30% of the ammonium salt of levulinic acid, 26% hexylamine, and 24% water by weight. The temperature and pressure of the reactions were maintained at 150° and 6.9 MPa. Water was used as the solvent medium for the reactions. The results are set forth in the following table. Ex. Catalyst Time Feedstock HxP Yield No. Catalyst/Support^(a) (mg) (hrs) (mg) (%) 31 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-142) 49.7 6 984.5 96.94 32 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-160) 51.2 6 986.2 93.71 33 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-143) 49.9 6 984.0 79.19 34 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-142) 1000.0 8 30000.0 76.85 35 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-140) 50.3 6 974.8 70.42 36 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-148) 49.2 6 981.4 57.34 37 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-149) 49.1 6 1037.5 55.65 38 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-162) 50.1 6 989.3 54.08

Examples 39-77 Preparation of 5-Methyl-1-Octyl-2-Pyrrolidone (OcMP)

[0099] The feedstock used in examples 39 through 77, except for example 40, was 20% of the ammonium salt of levulinic acid, 40% octylamine, and 40% water, by weight. For the reaction in example 40, the weight ratio of the feedstock was 30% of the ammonium salt of levulinic acid, 30% octylamine, and 40% water. The temperature and pressure of the reactions were maintained at 150° C. and 6.9 MPa. Water was used as the solvent medium for the reactions. The results are set forth in the following table. Feed- OcMP Ex. Catalyst Time stock Yield No. Catalyst/Support^(a) (mg) (hrs) (mg) (%) 39 5% Pt/Calsicat C 50.2 18 991.4 99.0 40 5% Pd/C (JM-A11108-5) 500.0 12 29950 98.4 41 5% Pt/Sibunit C 51.8 18 978.7 96.7 42 5% Pd/C (JM-A11108-5) 500.0 12 30090 96.3 43 5% Ir/Sibunit C 53.6 18 1002.3 95.7 44 5% Pd/C (JM-A11108-5) 51.5 18 987.6 94.7 45 5% Ir/Calsicat C 49.3 18 984.6 94.5 46 5% Pt/Al₂O₃ 50.8 18 980.6 85.7 47 5% Pt/Calgon C 49.4 18 983.6 84.8 48 5% Pt/SiO₂ 52.1 18 980.6 84.7 49 5% Pd/C (JM-A11208-5) 49.7 18 984.2 77.9 50 5% Pd/CaCO₃ (JM-A21139-5) 49.5 18 994.3 76.5 51 5% Ir/SiO₂ 50.4 18 989.6 76.0 52 5% Rh/SiO₂ 51.5 18 977.8 74.5 53 5% Pt/Al₂O₃ (JM-A302099-5) 51.5 18 989.9 74.3 54 5% Pt/Al₂O₃ (JM-A22117-5) 50.7 18 980.5 70.2 55 5% Pd/BaSO₄ (JM-A22222-5) 52.2 18 985.1 69.3 56 5% Rh/Al₂O₃ 50.6 18 974.5 60.1 57 5% Rh/Calgon C 50.9 18 972.2 58.9 58 5% Ir/Calgon C 51.2 18 987.3 58.4 59 5% Rh/Sibunit C 51.2 18 980.6 56.9 60 5% Rh/Calsicat C 51.7 18 979.5 51.1 61 5% Ir/Al₂O₃ 51.0 18 976.2 49.2 62 5% Ni/Sibunit C 50.2 18 981.2 39.4 63 5% Ni/Calsicat C 49.4 18 986.7 39.2 64 5% Ni/Al₂O₃ 51.5 18 990.6 31.5 65 5% Ni/Calgon C 49.3 18 972.8 30.4 66 5% Re/Sibunit C 49.2 18 981.7 24.0 67 5% Re/Calgon C 50.8 18 980.7 15.6 68 5% Ru/Calgon C 51.3 18 978.7 15.4 69 5% Re/Calsicat C 52.3 18 999.7 14.3 70 5% Ni/SiO₂ 51.8 18 996.7 13.4 71 5% Ru/Calsicat C 49.9 18 980.4 12.6 72 5% Ru/Sibunit C 49.1 18 979.2 11.2 73 5% Ru/C (Aldrich) 51.7 18 991.2 8.5 74 5% Re/SiO₂ 51.0 18 976.8 6.6 75 5% Re/Al₂O₃ 49.2 18 995.2 5.0 76 5% Ru/Al₂O₃ 52.2 18 978.1 0.0 77 5% Ru/SiO₂ 51.5 18 1000.9 0.0

Examples 78-86 Preparation of 5-Methyl-1-Decyl-2-Pyrrolidone (DeMP)

[0100] The feedstock used in examples 78 through 86 was 25% of the ammonium salt of levulinic acid, 25% decylamine, and 41% water, by weight. The temperature and pressure of the reactions were maintained at 150° C. and 6.9 MPa. Water was used as the solvent medium for the reactions. The results are set forth in the following table. DeMP Ex. Catalyst Time Feedstock Yield No. Catalyst/Support^(a) (mg) (hrs) (mg) (%) 78 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-142) 510.0 8 30060.0 96.11 79 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-142) 50.0 6 995.7 80.94 80 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-149) 51.1 6 992.0 67.47 81 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-162) 51.8 6 1021.2 66.68 82 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-160) 49.6 6 973.3 65.75 83 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-148) 50.8 6 1012.5 65.33 84 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-140) 51.0 6 1037.7 63.24 86 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-143) 51.9 6 992.4 59.23

Examples 87-91 Preparation of 5-Methyl-1-Hydroxyethyl-2-Pyrrolidone (HEMP) by Batch Reduction of Levulinic Acid (LA) Using Ethanolamine (EA) as the Alkyl Amine

[0101] The reactions were carried out for 4 hrs. at 150° C. and 5.52 MPa; the feedstock was levulinic acid/ethanolamine/H₂O at a ratio (weight %) of 30/16/54. The results are set forth in the following table. LA HEMP Ex. Conversion Selectivity No. Catalyst/Support^(a) (%) (%) 87 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-142) 98.4 80.7 88 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-248) 96.8 68.5 89 5% Ru/C (ST-141060-SA) 99.9 24.9 90 5% Rh/C (JM-A11761) 98.3 75.1 91 5% Re/C (Acros) 99.9 15.1

Examples 92-95 Preparation of 5-Methyl-1-Undecyl-2-Pyrrolidone (UnMP) by Batch Reduction of Levulinic Acid (LA) Using Undecylamine (UnA) as the Alkyl Amine

[0102] The reactions were carried out at 6.0 MPa. The results are set forth in the following table. Feedstock UnMP Ex. Catalyst/ Time Temp Ratio Yield No. Support^(a) (hrs) (C) Feedstock (wt %) (%) 92 5% Pd/C (JM- 8 200 LA/UnA/ 25/36.5/38.5 43.7 A503023-5) H₂O 93 5% Pd/C (JM- 8 150 LA/UnA/ 25/36.5/38.5 84.6 A503023-5) H₂O 94 5% Pd/C (JM- 18 150 LA/UnA 40/60 94.2 A503023-5) 95 5% Pd/C (JM- 18 150 LA/UnA 40/60 57.5 A503023-5)

Examples 96-98 Preparation of 5-Methyl-1-Nonyl-2-Pyrrolidone (NOMP) by Batch Reduction of Levulinic Acid (LA) Using Nonylamine (NoA) as the Alkyl Amine

[0103] The reactions were carried out at 150° C. and 6.90 MPa. The results are set forth in the following table. Feedstock NoMP Ex. Time Ratio Yield No. Catalyst/Support^(a) (hrs) Feedstock (wt %) (%) 96 5% Pd/C (JM- 6 LA/NoA/H₂O 25/31/44 44.3 A503023-5) 97 5% Pd/C (ESCAT- 6 LA/NoA/H₂O 25/31/44 58.0 140) 98 5% Pd/C (JM- 8 LA/NoA 46/54 41.7 A503023-5)

Examples 99-106 Preparation of 5-Methyl-1-Hexyl-2-Pyrrolidone (HxP) by Batch Reduction of Levulinic Acid (LA) Using Hexylamine (HA) as the Alkyl Amine

[0104] The reactions were carried out at 150° C. and 6.90 MPa; the feedstock was levulinic acid/hexylamine/H₂O at a ratio (weight %) of 30/26/44. The results are set forth in the following table. Ex. Time HxP Yield No. Catalyst/Support^(a) (hrs) (%) 99 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-140) 6 70.4 100 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-142) 6 96.9 101 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-143) 6 79.2 102 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-148) 6 57.3 103 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-149) 6 55.6 104 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-160) 6 93.7 105 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-162) 6 54.1 106 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-142) 8 76.9

Examples 107-116 Preparation of 5-Methyl-1-Heptyl-2-Pyrrolidone (HpMP) by Batch Reduction of Levulinic Acid (LA) Using Heptylamine (HpA) as the Alkyl Amine

[0105] The reactions were carried out at 150° C. and 6.90 MPa; the feedstock was levulinic acid/heptylamine/H₂O at a ratio (weight %) of 30/30/40. The results are set forth in the following table. HpMP Ex. Time Yield No. Catalyst/Support^(a) (hrs) (%) 107 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-140) 4 43.4 108 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-142) 4 44.0 109 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-143) 4 49.3 110 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-148) 4 55.4 111 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-149) 4 41.0 112 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-160) 4 43.6 113 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-162) 4 66.1 114 5% Pd/C (ESCAT-162) 8 99.2 115 5% Pd/C (JM-A503023-5) 8 97.5

Examples 117-147 Preparation of 5-Methyl-1-Cyclohexyl-2-Pyrrolidone (MCHP) by Batch Reduction of Levulinic Acid (LA) Using Cyclohexylamine (CHA) as the Alkyl Amine

[0106] H₂ Feedstock MCHP Catalyst/ Time Temp Press Ratio Yield Ex. No. Support^(a) (hrs) (C.) (MPa) Feedstock (wt %) (%) 116 5% Pd/C 6 150 6.90 LA/CHA/ 30/26/44 85.3 (JM-A503023-5) H₂O 117 5% Pd/C 6 150 6.90 LA/CHA/ 30/26/44 91.7 (ESCAT-142) H₂O 118 5% Pd/C 8 150 6.90 LA/CHA 54/46 88.0 (ESCAT-142) 119 5% Pd/C 6 150 6.90 LA/NH₄OH/ 30/32/26/ 24.1 (JM-A11108-5) CHA/H₂O 12 120 5% Pd/C 6 150 6.90 LA/NH₄OH/ 30/32/26/ 35.0 (ESCAT-142) CHA/H₂O 12 121 5% Pt/C 6 150 6.90 LA/NH₄OH/ 30/32/26/ 51.9 (ESCAT-248) CHA/H₂O 12 122 5% Rh/C 6 150 6.90 LA/NH₄OH/ 30/32/26/ 17.0 (JM-11761) CHA/H₂O 12 123 5% Pd/C 6 150 6.21 LA/NH₄OH/ 30/32/26/ 36.4 (JM-A11208-5) CHA/H₂O 12 124 5% Pd/Al₂O₃ 6 150 6.21 LA/NH₄OH/ 30/32/26/ 20.4 (JM-A22117-5) CHA/H₂O 12 125 5% Pd/Al₂O₃ 6 150 6.21 LA/NH₄OH/ 30/32/26/ 26.1 (JM-A302099-5) CHA/H₂O 12 126 5% Pt/C 6 150 6.21 LA/NH₄OH/ 30/32/26/ 42.9 (ESCAT-294) CHA/H₂O 12 127 5% Pt/C 6 150 6.21 LA/NH₄OH/ 30/32/26/ 50.9 (JM-B21101-5) CHA/H₂O 12 128 5% Pt/C 6 150 6.21 LA/NH₄OH/ 30/32/26/ 38.0 (Fisher) CHA/H₂O 12 129 5% Pt/C 6 150 6.21 LA/NH₄OH/ 30/32/26/ 53.6 (JM-B21142-5) CHA/H₂O 12 130 5% Pd/C 6 120 6.21 LA/NH₄OH/ 30/32/26/ 13.3 (JM-A11108-5) CHA/H₂O 12 131 5% Pd/C 6 120 6.21 LA/NH₄OH/ 30/32/26/ 45.6 (ESCAT-142) CHA/H₂O 12 132 5% Pt/C 6 120 6.21 LA/NH₄OH/ 30/32/26/ 49.3 (JM-B21101-5) CHA/H₂O 12 133 5% Pt/C 6 120 6.21 LA/NH₄OH/ 30/32/26/ 43.6 (ESCAT-248) CHA/H₂O 12 134 5% Rh/C 6 120 6.21 LA/NH₄OH/ 30/32/26/ 12.6 (JM-11761) CHA/H₂O 12 135 5% Ru/C 6 120 6.21 LA/NH₄OH/ 30/32/26/ 1.6 (ST-141060-SA) CHA/H₂O 12 136 0.8% 18 150 3.45 LA/NH₄OH/ 42/21/37 25.9 Pd/Calsicat 388- CHA 100 137 0.8% 7.3 150 3.45 LA/NH₄OH/ 42/21/37 34.5 Pd/Calsicat 388- CHA 100 138 0.5% Pd/C 19.1 150 3.45 LA/NH₄OH/ 42/21/37 34.8 (ENG-859A-1- CHA 566-1) 139 0.5% Pd/C 7.3 150 3.45 LA/NH₄OH/ 42/21/37 49.8 (ENG-859A-1- CHA 566-1) 140 0.5% Pd/C 16.6 150 3.45 LA/NH₄OH/ 42/21/37 58.4 (ENG-859A-1- CHA 566-1) 141 0.5% Pd/C 6.53 150 3.45 LA/NH₄OH/ 42/21/37 34.2 (ENG-859A-1- CHA 566-1) 142 0.5% Pd/C 16.5 150 3.45 LA/NH₄OH/ 30/15/55 51.8 (ENG-859A-1- CHA 566-1) 143 0.5% Pd/C 7.43 150 3.45 LA/NH₄OH/ 30/15/55 34.1 (ENG-859A-1- CHA 566-1) 144 0.5% Pd/C 4 150 3.45 LA/CHA/ 30/26/44 52.7 (ENG-859A-1- H₂O 566-1) 145 0.5% Pd/C 16.3 150 3.45 LA/CHA/ 30/26/44 48.3 (ENG-859A-1- H₂O 566-1) 146 0.5% Pd/C 7.5 150 3.45 LA/CHA/ 30/26/44 53.7 (ENG-859A-1- H₂O 566-1)

Example 147 Pharmaceutical Formulations

[0107] A) Topical Formulation: Solubilizer (diethylene glycol monoethyl ether) 2% to 50% Skin permeation enhancer 2% to 50% (N-hydroxyethyl-2-pyrrolidone) Emulsifier 2% to 20% Emollient (propylene glycol) 2% to 20% Preservative 0.01 to 0.2%  Active agent   0 to 25% Carrier Balance B) Cream: Phase 1: Polyethylene glycol and ethylene glycol palmitostearate   5% Caprilic/capric triglycerides   5% Oleoyl macrogolglycerides (Labrafil M 1944CS)   4% Cetyl alcohol 5.5% PPG-2 myristyl ether propionate (Crodamol PMP)   6% 5-methyl-N-hydroxyethyl-2-pyrrolidone   2% Phase 2: Xanthan gum 0.3% Purified water  55% Phase 3: Propylene glycol   1% Methylparaben 0.18%  Propylparaben 0.02%  Phase 4: Naftifine hydrochloride (antifungal)   1% Diethylene glycol monoethyl ether (Transcutol)  15%

[0108] Procedure:

[0109] Xanthan gum is dispersed in water and allowed to stand. Phase 1 components and phase 2 components are separately heated to 75° C.; phase 1 is mixed into phase 2 under high speed agitation. The temperature is maintained at 75° C while stirring for 10 min. The mixture is then slowly cooled while stirring at low speed. At 40° C., phase 3 is added. Naftifine is then mixed well into the Transcutol, and the mixture is added to the cream, mixed well and the cream is cooled to room temperature. C) Transdermal Patch Formulation: Ketoprofen 0.3% Polysorbate 80 0.5% 5-Methyl-N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone   1% 5-Methyl-N-ethyl-2-pyrrolidone   2% PEG 400  10% CMC-Na   4% Na-polyacrylate 5.5% Sanwet 1M-1000PS 0.5% Polyvinyl alcohol   1% PVP/VA copolymer   3%

Example 148 Cleaning Compositions

[0110] A) Grease Removal Formulation: Water  89% Potassium carbonate   1% Potassium bicarbonate   5% 5-Methyl-N-octyl-2-pyrrolidone 2.5% Deriphatec 151-C (Henkel Corp.) 2.5% B) Oil-in-Water Emulsion in Aerosol Form: Crillet 45 (Croda) 3.30%  Monamulse DL 1273 (Mona Industries, Inc.) 3.30%  5-Methyl-N-dodecyl-2-pyrrolidone 5.50%  Denatured absolute ethanol 100 AG/F3 (CSR Ltd.) 15.40%  Norpar 15 (Exxon) 5.50%  Deionized water 44.10%  Butane 16.95%  Propane 5.95%  C) All-Purpose Liquid Cleaning Composition: Neodol 91-8 (Shell) 3.5% Linear alkyl (C9-13) benzene sulfonate, Mg salt 10.5%  Propylene glycol mono-t-butyl ether 4.0% Coco fatty acid 1.4% 5-Methyl-N-decyl-2-pyrrolidone 1.0% Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate 5.0% Water 74.6 D) Shower-Rinsing Composition: Glucopon 225 (Henkel Corp.) 2.0% Isopropyl alcohol 2.2% Sequestrene 40 (45%, Ciba) 1.0% Fragrance 0.02%  Barquat 4250Z (50%, Lonza) 0.2% 5-Methyl-N-octyl-2-pyrrolidone 1.0% Water 93.58%  E) Dishwashing Composition: Ethanol (95%) 8.6% Alfonic 1412-A [Ethylene oxide sulfate (59.3%)] 22.5%  Alfonic 1412-10 1.1% Sodium chloride 0.9% 5-Methyl-N-decyl-2-pyrrolidone 7.5% Water 59.4%  F) Aqueous Antimicrobial Cleaning Composition: Adipic acid 0.40%  Dacpon 27-23 AL (Condea; C₁₂₋₁₄ sodium alkyl 0.15%  sulfate, 28% active) Isopropyl alcohol 1.8% Dowanol PnB (Dow; propylene glycol 0.30%  mono-N-butyl ether) 5-Methyl-N-octyl-2-pyrrolidone 0.4% Sodium hydroxide 0.05%  Water 96.9% 

[0111] An antimicrobial wipe can be made by impregnating a substrate with the above composition; the substrate can be spunlace comprising viscose/polyester at a ratio of 70:30 with a specific weight of 50 grams/m². The composition to substrate ratio is about 2.6:1. G) Disinfectant: Benzalkonium chloride   5% Sodium carbonate   2% Sodium citrate 1.5% Nonoxynol 10 2.5% 5-Methyl-N-octyl-2-pyrrolidone   5% Water  84% H) Anti-Parasitidal Agent (for dermal application to animals): Antiparasital agent 1 to 20% 5-Methyl-N-isopropyl-2-pyrrolidone  30% Benzyl alcohol (preservative)   3% Thickener 0.025-10% Colorant 0.025-10% Emulsifier 0.025-10% Water Balance

Example 149 Stripping/Cleaning Formulation

[0112] 5-Methyl-N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone 30% Monoethanolamine 55% Lactic acid  5% Water 10%

Example 150 Ink Jet Ink

[0113] CAB-O-JET 300 (Active)   4% Diethylene glycol 17.5%  5-Methyl-N-octyl-2-pyrrolidone 2.5% Deionized H₂O  76%

Example 151 Agrochemical Compositions

[0114] A) Composition for the Control of Insects: Permethrin   2% 5-Methyl-N-decyl-2-pyrrolidone   3% Dimethyl dipropyl naphthalene   7% Lauryl alcohol   5% Hymal 1071 (MatsumotoYushi Seiyaky, Inc.)  10% Hytenol N-08 (Daiichi Kogyo Seiyaku, Inc.)   2% Polyoxyethylene glycol  71% B) Pesticide Formulation: 5-Methyl-N-alkyl pyrrolidone  48% Sodium dodecyl sulfate  12% Agrimer AL25  10% Rodeo (pesticide; Monsanto)   1% Water  29% C) Emulsifiable Fungicide Formulation: Kresoxin-methyl 0.5% Propylene carbonate 1.5% Aromatic petroleum distillate 150 (Exxon) 2.9% 5-methyl-N-octyl-2-pyrrolidone 3.8% CaH/DDBSA [50% (Ca dodecylbenzene 1.4% Sulfonate + Dodecylbenzene Sulfonic acid (5:1) in Exxon 150 Water Balance

Example 152 Formulation for Protective Composition for Painted Automobile Surfaces

[0115] Propylene glycol phenyl ether 2.0% 5-Methyl-N-octyl-2-pyrrolidone 0.1% Emulsified silicone: 3.0% a) dimethyl silicone (2.67%) b) amino-functional silicone (0.21%) c) silicone resin (0.12%) Water 94.9% 

What is claimed is:
 1. A process for preparing 5-methyl-1-R₁-2-pyrrolidone (III), the process comprising the step of contacting levulinic acid (I) with a primary amine (II) in the presence of hydrogen gas and a catalyst, the catalyst being optionally supported on a catalyst support, and, optionally, said contacting is performed in the presence of a solvent;

wherein R₁ is a hydrocarbyl or a substituted hydrocarbyl group having from 1 to 30 carbons, and R₁ may be C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkenyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkynyl, C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl containing at least one heteroatom.
 2. A process for preparing a reaction product comprising 5-methyl-1-R₂-2-pyrrolidone (VI), the process comprising the step of contacting an ammonium salt of levulinic acid (IV) with a primary amine (V) in the presence of hydrogen gas and a catalyst, the catalyst being optionally supported on a catalyst support, and, optionally, said contacting is performed in the presence of a solvent;

wherein R₂ is a hydrocarbyl or a substituted hydrocarbyl group having from 1 to 30 carbons, and wherein R₂ may be C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkenyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkynyl, C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl containing at least one heteroatom.
 3. A process for preparing a reaction product comprising 5-methyl-1-R₃-2-pyrrolidone (IX), the process comprising the step of contacting an R₃-ammonium salt of levulinic acid (VII) with ammonia or ammonium hydroxide (VIII), in the presence of hydrogen gas and a catalyst, the catalyst being optionally supported on a catalyst support, and, optionally, said contacting is performed in the presence of a solvent;

wherein R₃ is a hydrocarbyl or a substituted hydrocarbyl group having from 1 to 30 carbons, and wherein R₃ may be C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkenyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkynyl, C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl containing at least one heteroatom, and wherein A is hydrogen or hydronium ion (H₃O⁺).
 4. A process for preparing a reaction product comprising 5-methyl-1-R₆-2-pyrrolidone (XII), the process comprising the step of contacting an R₄-ammonium salt of levulinic acid (X) with a primary amine (XI) in the presence of hydrogen gas and a catalyst, the catalyst being optionally supported on a catalyst support, and, optionally, said contacting is performed in the presence of a solvent;

wherein R₄, R₅, and R₆, independently, are hydrocarbyl or substituted hydrocarbyl groups having from 1 to 30 carbons, and wherein R₄, R₅ and R₆ independently, may be C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkenyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkynyl, C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl containing at least one heteroatom.
 5. A process for preparing a reaction product comprising 5-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (XV), the process comprising the step of contacting the compound represented by Formula (XIII) with the compound represented by Formula (XIV) in the presence of hydrogen gas and a catalyst, the catalyst being optionally supported on a catalyst support, and, optionally, said contacting is performed in the presence of a solvent;

wherein A is either hydrogen or ammonium ion (NH₄ ⁺), and B is either hydrogen or hydronium ion (H₃O⁺).
 6. The process as recited in claims 1 through 5, wherein the catalyst is selected from metals selected from the group consisting of nickel, copper, cobalt, iron, rhodium, ruthenium, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, palladium, at least one Raney metal; compounds thereof; and combinations thereof.
 7. The process as recited in claim 6, wherein the catalyst is palladium and compounds thereof.
 8. The process as recited in claim 6, wherein the catalyst is supported to form a supported metal catalyst and the content of the metal in the supported metal catalyst is from 0.1% to 20% by weight.
 9. The process as recited in claims 1 through 5, wherein the catalyst support is selected from the group consisting of carbon, alumina, silica, silica-alumina, silica-titania, titania, titania-alumina, barium sulfate, calcium carbonate, strontium carbonate, compounds thereof, and combinations thereof.
 10. The process as recited in claim 9, wherein the carbon has an ash content, the ash content being less than 5% by weight of the catalyst support, and optionally wherein the carbon has a surface area of more than 200 m²/g.
 11. The process as recited in claims 1 through 5, wherein the process is optionally performed in the presense of a promoter.
 12. The process as recited in claims 1 through 4, wherein R₁, R₂, R₃, R₄, R₅ or R₆ is an unsubstituted or substituted hydrocarbyl group having from 1 to 12 carbons.
 13. The process as recited in claims 1 through 5, wherein the molar ratio of primary amine, ammonia or ammmonium ion to levulinic acid or its salt is from about 0.01/1 to about 100/1 at the start of the reaction.
 14. The process as recited in claim 13, wherein the reaction is performed at a temperature of from about 50° C. to about 300° C.
 15. The process as recited in claim 13, wherein the reaction is performed at a hydrogen pressure of from about 0.3 MPa to about 20 MPa.
 16. The process as recited in claim 8, wherein the supported metal catalyst is selected from the group consisting of palladium on carbon, palladium on calcium carbonate, palladium on barium sulfate, palladium on alumina, palladium on titania, platinum on carbon, platinum on alumina, platinum on silica, iridium on silica, iridium on carbon, iridium on alumina, rhodium on carbon, rhodium on silica, rhodium on alumina, nickel on carbon, nickel on alumina, nickel on silica, rhenium on carbon, rhenium on silica, rhenium on alumina, ruthenium on carbon, ruthenium on alumina and ruthenium on silica.
 17. The process as recited in claim 16, wherein the supported metal catalyst is selected from the group consisting of palladium on carbon, palladium on titania, palladium on alumina, palladium on silica, and combinations thereof.
 18. The process as recited in claims 1 through 5, wherein the solvent medium for the reaction is selected from the group consisting of water, alcohols, ethers, primary amines of Formula (II), Formula (V) or Formula (XI), ammonia or ammonium hydroxide, pyrrolidones, and the reaction product of claim 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5, respectively.
 19. The process as recited in claims 1, 2, 3 or 4, wherein R₁, R₂, R₃, R₄, R₅ or R₆ is an alkyl group having from 1 to 12 carbons or a cycloalkyl group having from 6 to 12 carbons, wherein the catalyst is supported and the supported catalyst is palladium on carbon or palladium on titania, and wherein the temperature of the reaction is from about 75° C. to 200° C. and the pressure of the reaction is from about 1.3 MPa to about 8 MPa.
 20. The process as recited in claim 5, wherein the catalyst and support are palladium on carbon or palladium on titania, and wherein the temperature of the reaction is from about 75° C. to 250° C. and the pressure of the reaction is from about 1.3 MPa to about 8 MPa.
 21. A process for preparing a pharmaceutical composition, the process comprising the steps of: i) preparing 5-methyl-1-R₁-2-pyrrolidone (III) using a process comprising the step of contacting levulinic acid (I) with a primary amine (II) in the presence of hydrogen gas and a metal catalyst, the metal catalyst being optionally supported, and, optionally, in the presence of a solvent;

wherein R₁ is C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkenyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkynyl, C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl containing at least one heteroatom; and ii) contacting 5-methyl-1-R₁-2-pyrrolidone (III) with at least one pharmaceutically therapeutic agent.
 22. A process for preparing an agrochemical composition, the process comprising the steps of: i) preparing 5-methyl-1-R₁-2-pyrrolidone (III) using a process comprising the step of contacting levulinic acid (I) with a primary amine (II) in the presence of hydrogen gas and a metal catalyst, the metal catalyst being optionally supported, and, optionally, in the presence of a solvent;

wherein R₁ is C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkenyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkynyl, C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl containing at least one heteroatom; and ii) contacting 5-methyl-1-R₁-2-pyrrolidone (III) with at least one agrochemically effective agent.
 23. A process for preparing a cleaning composition, the process comprising the steps of: i) preparing 5-methyl-1-R₁-2-pyrrolidone (III) using a process comprising the step of contacting levulinic acid (I) with a primary amine (II) in the presence of hydrogen gas and a metal catalyst, the metal catalyst being optionally supported, and, optionally, in the presence of a solvent;

wherein R₁ is C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkenyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkynyl, C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl containing at least one heteroatom; and ii) contacting 5-methyl-1-R₁-2-pyrrolidone (III) with a compound selected from the group consisting of anionic surfactants, nonionic surfactants, cationic surfactants, amphoteric surfactants, glycols, glycol ethers, aliphatic alcohols, alkanolamines, pyrrolidones, water, and mixtures thereof.
 24. A process for preparing an ink jet ink composition, the process comprising the steps of: i) preparing 5-methyl-1-R₁-2-pyrrolidone (III) using a process comprising the step of contacting levulinic acid (I) with a primary amine (II) in the presence of hydrogen gas and a metal catalyst, the metal catalyst being optionally supported, and, optionally, in the presence of a solvent;

wherein R₁ is C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkenyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkynyl, C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl containing at least one heteroatom; and ii) contacting 5-methyl-1-R₁-2-pyrrolidone (III) with at least one colorant.
 25. A process for preparing a refrigerant or air conditioning lubricant, the process comprising the steps of: i) preparing 5-methyl-1-R₁-2-pyrrolidone (III) using a process comprising the step of contacting levulinic acid (I) with a primary amine (II) in the presence of hydrogen gas and a metal catalyst, the metal catalyst being optionally supported, and, optionally, in the presence of a solvent;

wherein R₁ is C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkenyl, C₁-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted alkynyl, C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl, or C₃-C₃₀ unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl containing at least one heteroatom; and ii) contacting 5-methyl-1-R₁-2-pyrrolidone (III) with at least one refrigerant. 